Public Agenda (Accra)
7 November 2002
Accra — The fact that virtually all species are subjected to over hunting implies that where the populations of key species, such as the primates and duikers, which are pollinators and seed dispersal agents, are drastically reduced, they can no longer play their ecological functions of facilitating forest regeneration.
The apparent loss of the habitat of some of these species could be attributed to this tendency. It is therefore obvious that modern conservation practices, such as the existing legislation alone cannot be effective in ensuring sustainable utilization of the wildlife resources. There is therefore the need to consider a combination of both modern and traditional practices that are sensitive to biodiversity conservation, while providing adequate levels of sustainable utilization that could also enhance food security.
Most preferred Bushmeat in Ghana
It is worthy to note that of all the eleven (11) wild animals listed in terms of Bushmeat preference, during the surveys, the grasscutter (thryonomis swinderamus) was the most preferred, accounting for 65.1 percent of the total preference (fig 4). This was confirmed by the fact that it was the most sought after consumed Bushmeat in the restaurants and chop bars throughout the country. It is also the most abundant in all the markets surveyed. This conforms to the assertion by Ntiamoa Baidu (1997) that it remains the most important Bushmeat species throughout West Africa in terms of volume of trade and preference. It is also an indication of an over-dependence of consumers on a single species. Such over-dependencies probably resulting in the over exploitation of this species as some of the traders had reported that such smaller sizes are now being hunted and sold, as compared to previous years. Even though the species breeds prolifically and is reported to be a destructive farm pest, the current rate of exploitation could be more than what the reproductive capacity of the populations in the wild could sustain.
The high dependence of consumers on this single species provides justification for the promotion of the grasscutter (thryonomis swinderanus) domestication programme. This is because there is currently, adequate demand for the meat of this species and any investment is most likely to readily pay off and contribute enormously to reducing the high market demand on other wild animal species.
The preference of Grasscutter is followed by Maxwell's duiker (Cephalophus Maxwellii) (19.9 percent ) and not Royal antelope (Neotragus Pgmaeus), as was noted by Ntiamoa-Baidu (1997). This could be attributed to the fact that the hunting pressure had impacted the populations of the latter more than the former. Caspay (2001) observed that most exploited species were those considered to cause damage to agricultural areas. Incidentally, all the eleven (11) preferred species, except the Pangolin (Manis sp), were farm pests eating maize cassava, cocoyam among others. Altogether, they constituted more than 80% of all the Bushmeat sold in the markets and the restaurants. That probably justified why they were the most exploited and sought after.
Another issue worth noting is the fact that primates were not a favoured species for human consumption. This is because traditionally people do not prefer primates as a source of protein. Therefore the apparent disappearance of the primates in their natural habitats, especially the Miss Waldron's Red Colobus (Procolobus badius waldronii), could not be solely attributed to Bushmeat consumption alone, but to other causal factors such as habitat destruction and changes in ecological conditions.
Sources of Supply
The results of the survey have revealed that Bushmeat dealers in Ghana received their supplies from all the regions of Ghana. This indicates that all the regions are involved in the Bushmeat trade even during the closed season. Bushmeat is sent to the major markets either smoked or fresh. Those using Bushmeat for medicinal purposes cut the meat into various parts (bones, skull, skin, hair, tails, jaws intestines, limbs) and dry them for their clientele.
Standards for Bushmeat processing and marketing vary from one area to the other. There seems to be absolutely no rules or standards for the Bushmeat trade in Ghana and the quality of Bushmeat offered for sale on the markets varies widely. While there may be standards set to ensure domestic meat hygiene, these either do not seem to apply to bushmeat or are totally ignored when it comes to bushmeat marketing and processing.
The bushmeat trade has evolved over a long period of time and developed into an intricate network of hunters, wholesalers (queen mothers, middlemen), retailers (restaurant /chop bar operators) and consumers. Hunters kill the animals and either transport them long distances to the marketing centres for sale to middlemen or the queen mothers travel to the farm gates to buy the bulk of bushmeat killed. It is common for animals killed on night hunting trips to be kept till day break before they are sold. Animals caught in traps may stay in the traps for up to three days if trappers do not visit their traps regularly for one reason or another. Sometimes such carcasses are almost beginning to decompose, but they will be collected and either sold as 'fresh' bushmeat or smoked for sale (Ntiamoa-Baidu, 1997). There also seem to be no standards for smoked bushmeat and it is common to find improperly smoked bushmeat offered for sale on the markets.
The queen mothers sell the bushmeat to the retailer in the state in which they bought them. The retailers mostly restaurant/chop bar operators, process the bushmeat for sale to consumers.
METHODS OF HUNTING
The survey recorded six main methods of hunting wildlife. These methods include the use of guns(60%), chemicals(32.5%), fire (3.2%), dogs (2.8%)cutlasses/clubs (1.3%) and traps (0.2%). Of the six (^) methods of hunting recorded during the survey, only guns and traps are legally approved by LI685 of 1971 (WD, 1999)
The Use of Guns
Despite all the controls on weapon possession in Ghana, the use of guns for hunting accounts for 60 percent of the bushmeat supply on the Ghanaian markets. The high percentage use of guns as a method of hunting as against the traditional sanctioned methods of hunting such as trapping is of critical concern to conservationists. Even more disturbing was the reported use of automatic weapons rather than shot-guns. The former promoted mass killing of wild animals at a time, especially the gregarious ones such as the monkeys and those savanna ungulates that occur in herds.
Molade (2002) noted that most urban professional hunters use rifles and other licensed automatic weapons. Such weapons have a more devastating effect on wild animal populations as compared to the use of shot-guns larger species with slow reproductive rates are particularly vulnerable, and tend to disappear first where they are subjected to severe hunting pressure. Lahm (1993) also noted that within a population of about 130 people in a village in north eastern Gabon, the ratio of gun ownership was 1:6.5. This observation could be similar to the present situation in Ghana. In the past flint-licks were used and these were made by local blacksmiths. Currently 12 gauge shot guns as well as locally made and imported rifles are commonly used (Ntiamoah -Baidu, 1997). Most professional hunters own a gun and it is common for a younger part time hunter to rent/borrow a gun from an older hunter and pay a portion of his catch for the use of the gun.
This method of hunting is therefore likely to be one of the major factors largely responsible for the scarcity of the primate species in the wild and low representation in the bushmeat trade. Because mass killing could easily be effected with automatic weapons, such a method of hunting has serious implications on food security and biodiversity conservation. This is because it does not favour the sustainable exploitation of wildlife resources as an important socio-economic commodity, which supports the livelihood of both rural and urban populations.
The use of guns as the predominant method of hunting is also of great concern as it poses a threat to national security. It is a reflection of the fact that a large number of people especially in rural areas possess guns. There is therefore the likelihood that such weapons could easily be used to cause civil strife, which could result in political instability as has happened in Sierra Leone and Liberia (BSP, 2001). The displacement of human populations who tend to depend largely on natural resources, eventually leads to destruction of biodiversity. Armed conflicts tend to prevent local people from growing basic food crops for their survival and hence could result in a greater dependency on wild food such as bushmeat and wild food plants. It is therefore not only a potential threat to national security, but also to the volatile food security situation of the country.
The Use of Chemicals
One significant revelation of the survey is the widespread use of chemicals for bushmeat hunting. This method of hunting is illegal as stated in part 1 Section 5 of the Wildlife Conservation Regulation LI 685 of 1971 (WD, 1998). This is a further indication that there is no adherence to the law.
According to the survey, the use of chemicals for hunting of wildlife constitutes about 32.5 percent of the bushmeat supplies to markets in Ghana This method is particularly dangerous since it poses health hazards to consumers of bushmeat. Available records of some chemicals used for hunting bushmeat have resulted in the death of consumers. This suggests that the chemicals are harmful not only to animals but to humans as well.
The chemicals are of two types: Imported chemicals and Traditional preparations.
Laboratory analysis carried out on some bushmeat sold on the Ghanaian markets by the Standard Board of Ghana has revealed the presence of organophosphates and organochlorine traces in the samples. This attests to the use of such imported toxic chemicals for hunting bushmeat in Ghana.
One of such imported toxic chemicals is referred to locally as 'sharp' because of its ability to kill large numbers of rodents that eat it. Their death occurs minutes after contact with a 'sharp' contaminated food '. Sharp' is normally placed on a cocoyam leaf, folded and tied in anticipation that bush pigs that consume cocoyam leaves would, in addition, eat the contaminated leaves as well, The 'sharp' chemical is also used by sprinkling the chemical on the leaves of bent maize plants. Rodents that eat the contaminated maize plant die instantly in large numbers.
Different traditional preparations are used for hunting bushmeat in Ghana. One such preparation is made by grinding the roots and bark of an indigenous tree (Nkradadua) and broken bottles. The ground materials are then mixed with a quantity of urine which has been kept for two weeks. This preparation is then smeared on cassava chips. A large population of wild animals, particularly rodents die after eating the contaminated cassava chips.
Another method employed is the introduction of a chemical known locally as 'Tangen' which is introduced into a semi ripe banana and the bunch landed on a tree. Primates are particularly attracted to banana and they die in great numbers after eating the contaminated food. This method of hunting leaves behind a residue of harmful chemicals and this poses great threat to the environment and human health.
The Use of Fire and Dogs in hunting
The survey revealed that the use of fire accounts for 3. 2 percent of the major bushmeat hunting methods used in Ghana the use of fire in hunting is more common in the grassland savannah areas and is mostly done in groups. Members of the group are positioned strategically around a patch of grassland known to contain wild animals. The area is set then on fire and animals are killed with cutlasses and clubs as out of the area to escape the fire.This method has far reaching consequences for the environment since the process results in the destruction of vegetation, soil fauna and flora and hastens in the drying of water bodies.
Hunting with dogs play a significant role in the hunting of wild animals. The bushmeat survey revealed that hunting with dogs constitutes. 2.8 percent of the major methods of hunting in Ghana
The Use Traps and Cutlasses/Clubs
The most dominant traditionally sanctioned method of hunting is the use of traps. Others such as the use of dogs, fire and cutlasses have no legal backing (WD, 1998). Most hunters who hunt with guns also set traps. Traps may also be set by farmers who do not hunt with gunsThe survey recorded a 0.2 percent in the use of traps for hunting wild life. Traps are set in the forest in areas known to be used by wild animals or along trails and at feeding grounds. Trapping is non-selective but less destructive to wild animal populations as compared to the use of guns such as the automatic weapons. Traps end up killing all animals including those that may not be of any nutritive value to the hunter. In some Ghanaian communities snakes are not considered as food and therefore allowed to rot when captured by a trap.
Traps are also set in and around farms; often a fence is constructed around a farm and traps are set at intervals along the fence.
This system is primarily a crop protection measure and the primary objective is to reduce damage to crops by wild animals particularly rodents. This could explain the reason behind the low level of the use of this method. In addition, the irregular visit to the traps results in the decay of the bushmeat it has trapped and killed.
The use of cutlasses/ clubs as a hunting method is also captured by the survey.This method constitutes 1.3 percent of the major hunting methods in Ghana.
Some of these traditional resource utilization tools that are less destructive to wildlife could be modified and promoted to replace those that facilitate mass destruction.
Trade in bushmeat during the Year
Out of 300 retailers who were interviewed, 61.4% stated that they received and sold bushmeat throughout the year. However, 38.6% indicated that they were engaged in the trade only during times of the year when they cannot find any income generating alternatives. It is therefore apparent that the former were in full-time employment while the latter only on part-time basis.
REVIEW OF THE 'CLOSE SEASON' POLICY
The annual closed season on hunting, originated from the traditional practice of avoiding hunting during the rainy season, in order to allow wild animals to breed without hunting pressure. The Annual Closed Season on Hunting, as prescribed by the wildlife conservation regulations, legislative instrument 685 of 1971, was thus intended to facilitate the successful breeding of wild animals and prevent their over exploitation, by ensuring that no hunting took place during the period 1st August to 1st December. The hunting of other animals could only be allowed for justifiable reasons (WD1999). However, the survey has revealed that all animals regardless of the conservation statues are hunted and marketed publicly.
The open display of as many as fourteen (14) wholly protected wildlife species on the open market during the Annual Closed Season, indicates that the hunters and traders do not differentiate between the animals whose hunting and trade is prohibited and the ones that are allowed for hunting. Therefore if no restraint is exercised in the choice of the animals that are legally protected at all times, then there is virtually no protection for all wild animals in the country. There is therefore the need to review the wildlife laws, strengthen the enforcement and improve upon awareness campaign.
Ntiamoah-Baidu (1997) estimated that the total volume of bushmeat traded in Ghana annually is 38;4000 metric tonnes worth about $350million. Since the grasscutter (Thryonomis swinderianus) remains the most preferred bushmeat (65.1%) of the animals listed in terms of volume of trade and preference, not only in Ghana but the rest of West Africa, the species needs to be considered as a very important economic commodity. The management and utilization of the species should therefore be given more attention.
Even though the species is of such high economic importance, its contribution to the economic development of the nation is not reflected in the national accounting system. One way to cater for that and to sustain the high consumer dependence is to constitute a body such as Grasscutter Utilization Board that could be assigned responsibilities for the sustainable management ,harvesting and marketing of the commodity similar to cocoa and timber.
The shift in preference from Royal Antelope to Maxwell's Duiker is a good indicator of consumer's behaviour with regards to the demand and supply of bushmeat. The latter was probably an equally good substitute that was also readily available. Domestication scheme should therefore not only focus on single species such as the grasscutter, but on a variety of species so that the pressure of bushmeat consumption could be distributed among several and not borne by a few species. This could enable the populations of such species to thrive well in the wild.
The fact that primates are not a traditionally preferred bushmeat is worth noting by conservation practitioners. This means that the population of primates stand the best chance of recovery where traditional conservation norms are respected; there is therefore the hope that should this opportunity be pursued, the population of species such as the Miss Waldron's Red Colobus (Procolobus badius waldronii) and other endangered primates could recover significantly. Whoever, there is still the need to investigate the possible changes in other ecological factors which could be contributing to the decline of the primate populations.
The survey also revealed that some totems such as the crested Porcupine (Hystrix sp) and buffalo (Syncerus caffer), were also being hunted and sold. This practice was traditionally prohibited, as totems were revered as sacred animals by some members of society, especially clan members and chiefs. Traditionally, it is maintained that the welfare of an individual or lineage depended on its members maintaining a relation of respect towards a particular species of animal (Ntiamoah-Baidu, 1997). As such they refrained form killing and eating such totems. It is worth noting that such traditional practices affirmed the ecological truth that human welfare is dependant on plant and animal welfare (BSP, 1993). It is therefore obvious that modern conservation practices, such as legislation alone cannot be effective in ensuring sustainable utilization of the wildlife resources. There is therefore the need to consider a combination of both modern and traditional practices that are sensitive to biodiversity conservation, while providing adequate levels of sustainable utilization that could also enhance food security.
The Appropriateness of the Annual Closed Season on Hunting
The idea of closed season on hunting had its origin from the traditional knowledge of the reproduction of wild animals, especially in the forest zone of Ghana. It is therefore not surprising that the current prescribed period of the Annual Closed Season on Hunting appears to favour only the large-bodied mammals of the forest zone of the country. The law is therefore of limited coverage as a few species, such as the forest ungulates were the targets, the greater part of the wild animals in Ghana, especially the ungulates, wild pigs and primates of the savanna zone were not adequately catered for by the law since most of them breed soon after the closed season. There is therefore an urgent need for a scientific review of the regulations on the existing prescribed period of the Annual Closed Season on hunting, to ensure a wider coverage based on a combination of indigenous knowledge and modern ecologically sound practices that could promote sustainable utilization, food security and at the same time protect a greater number of the wild animal species.
Kormos and Bakarr (2001) noted that Ghana's wildlife legislation had failed to maintain an appropriate balance between use and conservation , focused mainly on hunting licenses, and protection of individual species. The existing legislation was thus considered to be more of a constraint rather than a tool for conservation. This view is particularly applicable to the current legislative instrument (Wildlife Reserves Regulation, LI 685,1971) on the closed season on hunting, since it is limited in species coverage, lacks enforcement and does not in any way promote biodiversity conservation. There is therefore the need for a review of such legislation to ensure that they are sensitive to biodiversity conservation and the promotion of food security.
Bushmeat Trade as a Means of Livelihood
A greater number (61.4%) of all the traders interviewed, indicated that they traded in bushmeat throughout the year. This revealed that most of them depended on this trade as a full-time occupation. Their persistence in the trade during the Closed Season could be due to non-availability of suitable alternative income generating options, the volume of bushmeat available in all the markets confirmed the assertion (Molade, 2000) that despite the decline in the population of some key species in the wild, the supply to the markets remained stable. This also confirmed that there had been an increase in the hunting effort to maintain the regular supply.
On the other hand the increasing number of traders in full-time could be a contributory fact. According to some of the full-time traders who were interviewed, in their effort to stay in business throughout the year, some of them engaged and paid for the services of commercial hunters who provided them with their regular supplies. Such hunters aimed at killing the large- bodied mammals which could afford them the greatest return in monetary terms. This high level of dependence on the bushmeat trade as a regular means of livelihood could therefore easily be used to facilitate any possible wild animal domestication programme.
Evaluation of Pre-survey Awareness Programme
The fact that the bushmeat trade was still thriving during the period of the Annual Closed Season, attested to the fact that Wildlife Conservation regulations, LI 685 of 1971, together with all the amendments are not known by civil society as a whole. Despite all the efforts made by Conservation International to create awareness through Radio and Television programmes, very little impact was made on the bushmeat trade during the period. All the respondents indicated that they were not supposed to trade in bushmeat , except the Grasscutter (Thryonomis swinderanus) during the period. However, those involved in hunting perceived it as a threat to their source of livelihood.
The most noteworthy impact was the reports on the consumer boycott of bushmeat, as reported by the traders themselves. This confirmed that CI's awareness campaign made positive impact on consumers as compared to the traders. Some of the consumers, who had decided to boycott the bushmeat, were probably made aware of the dangerous health implications. should its trend be sustained, there is the likelihood that, both the bushmeat hunters and traders may go into the domestication of some of the preferred species as an alternative option.
CONCLUSION
The persistence of the bushmeat trade during the Annual Closed Season on Hunting indicates that bushmeat still remains an important source of protein in Ghana, however the ineffectiveness of the existing regulatory mechanism has largely contributed to the escalation of the bushmeat crisis, thus posing a major threat to efforts to ensure food security and effective wildlife conservation.
While enormous efforts are being made to ensure that the exploitation of other natural resources, such as timber and mineral deposits, are effectively regulated, no such attempts have been extended to the bushmeat trade. Even though the legally recognised Annual Closed Season on hunting has been in place over more than thirty (30) years, there has been virtually no efforts at awareness creation effective enforcement and hence virtually no adherence.
Conservation International welcomes the Closed Season on Hunting and is of the opinion that if well implemented, it has the potential to facilitate the successful breeding of a number of endangered and rare species. However, the lack of awareness and enforcement could be contributing to the bushmeat crisis, since hunting and sale of bushmeat continued during the Closed Season and could completely disrupt the recruitment and the replacement generation of a number of key species of wild animals. The lack of enforcement of such a law has serious implications on biodiversity conservation and food security in rural communities and suggests a low perception of the economic importance of this commodity on the part of decision-makers.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The Annual Closed Season on 'hunting is ineffective and should be reviewed and strengthened with incentives for compliance and surveillance.
The use of toxic chemicals for hunting bushmeat is very significant and must be stopped through awareness programmes and prosecution in courts in order to avoid wildlife extinction.
Awareness creation should be intended to ensure that consumers are well informed about the health implications of bushmeat consumption in order to promote consumer boycott.
1. Apart from the Grasscutter (Thryonomis swinderanus), which is already being domesticated, the others which were recommended for domestication, such as the Maxwell's Duiker (Cephalohus maxwellii)_ should be actively promoted.
2. There is the need for an ecological assessment of the appropriateness of the period for the Annual Closed Season on Hunting.
3. The possession of guns, especially automatic weapons in the local communities, is not only a threat to wildlife conservation but also national security. In order to reduce such threats, appropriate action should be taken to retrieve unauthorized weapons in the society.
4. Age old traditional conservation norms, such as sanctions and taboos that prohibit the hunting of totems and other sacred animals, need to be promoted by assisting the Traditional Authorities to enact them into bye-laws at the District Assemblies .
5. Community Resource Wildlife management areas should be promoted to provide sustainable protein sources for the rural communities and study tour to Zimbabwe and Sri Lanka understudy similar local initiative.
6. Alternative and sustainable protein sources should be identified and promoted to reduce demand on the wildlife are sources
7. There is also the need to train hunters in the use of safe hunting methods.
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