Although sexual violence during armed conflicts is increasingly recognised, attacks on men and boys remain a blind spot.
Men, women and children in Sudan are being raped indiscriminately on both sides of the conflict. The attacks happen in their communities, in detention, while fleeing the war, and in the places where they resettle. Almost 16 000 people have died in the conflict, and hunger and displacement add to the humanitarian catastrophe.
Efforts at dialogue to end the 16-month civil war haven't succeeded. The most recent peace talks that started in Geneva on 14 August failed to progress, given the absence of the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF). And while the International Criminal Court's call for evidence in support of its investigation into war crimes committed in Sudan - including sexual violence - is welcomed, it will take years to secure accountability for victims.
Sexual violence against men in war is rife, but humanitarian and other responses, including much of the reporting on Sudan, focus on women and girls. Addressing the attacks on men and boys in Sudan is difficult due to a lack of data, stigma and shame. Existing laws and healthcare providers don't recognise men as victims - despite evidence from conflicts in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Central African Republic (CAR), Palestine, Iraq, Northern Ireland, the former Yugoslavia and other countries.
Conflict-related sexual violence in Sudan is linked to the intensifying war between the SAF and the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces. The current siege on El Fasher - one of the few remaining 'safe' havens and refuge to just under two million civilians - has blocked safe pathways for food and aid. The multiple attacks on medical staff, facilities and supplies have impeded the provision of vital healthcare services across Sudan, leading to 80% of hospitals closing.
Amid ongoing war, survivors of sexual violence face grave mental health difficulties and receive no psychosocial support. In conflict zones, death, displacement and sexual violence form the triple nexus of violence for victims, among a litany of other problems.
Sexual violence against males during armed conflict is neither novel nor exceptional. Although most evidence tends to be anecdotal, a 2023 study on South Sudanese refugees who resettled in Uganda showed that the prevalence of attacks on males was much higher than was publicly reported.
Statistics also show that soldiers (men and women) are more at risk than civilians during conflict. This aligns with a 2008 survey of conflict-related sexual violence survivors from Liberia, which indicated comparable levels of exposure for male and female combatants (32.6% and 42.3%). This exposure was much higher than for male and female non-combatants (7.4% and 9.2% respectively). A screening of 447 male refugees in eastern DRC by the Refugee Law Project in Uganda found that one in three had experienced sexual violence.
Due to the more widely recognised impact of sexual violence on women and girls, local and international non-governmental organisations (NGOs) operating in conflict zones typically focus on female survivors. This can inadvertently create 'hierarchies of rape'. It may also result in programme designs that lack dedicated resources and sensitivity training for health, legal and social support service providers on detecting and treating male sexual violence victims.
As with efforts to document rape against women and girls, the scale of sexual violence against males in Sudan is unknown. But an absence of data doesn't mean an absence of incidents.
What we do know is that there is a long history of concealing male conflict-related sexual violence under the guise of torture, including through castration, genital mutilation, being stripped naked and sexual slavery. Such attacks are also a consistent feature of the treatment of men and boys in the protracted occupation of the Palestinian Territories.
The same patriarchal assumptions of power and control that have for decades masked the visibility of sexual violence against females, also hide assaults against men and boys in Sudan. Rape (legally and socially) is still largely viewed as the violation of women who 'belong' to men. The few male victims who disclose their rapes are not believed or are not deemed to be 'real' men.
This plays into antiquated stereotypes that make it difficult to see men as victims, resulting in significant underreporting due to shame, fear of prosecution through anti-sodomy laws, or rejection by family and communities. A New York Times report on male rape victims in the DRC found that 'Men here, like anywhere, are reluctant to come forward. Several who did said they instantly became castaways in their villages, lonely, ridiculed figures, derisively referred to as "bush wives"'.
Sign up for free AllAfrica Newsletters
Get the latest in African news delivered straight to your inbox
In the short term, securing a ceasefire and opening the humanitarian corridors to alleviate the Sudanese people's immediate suffering must be prioritised. The recent easing of restrictions on the flow of aid trucks is encouraging, though it's unclear what conditions are attached to this arrangement and how long it will last. Regardless, efforts to scale up aid distribution can be enhanced by partnering with the vast network of local NGOs and volunteer groups on the frontlines.
At the same time, local and international partners should pool their resources to ensure that justice and accountability can take place by documenting crimes, preserving evidence and enabling effective prosecutions.
The provision of psychosocial services to male and female survivors of conflict-related sexual violence must be bolstered, including funding to train and sensitise first responders on how to adequately support men and boys. These interventions are crucial to sow the seeds for social reconstruction and sustainable peace in Sudan.
Xhanti Mhlambiso, Researcher, Rule of law, ISS
