Surveys find widespread perceptions of unfair treatment based on people's economic status.
Key findings
- On average across 39 countries, at least eight in 10 Africans express tolerant attitudes toward people of different ethnicities (89%), different religions (85%), different political affiliations (82%), and different nationalities (80%). Only one-fourth (24%) say the same about people in same-sex relationships. o Levels of tolerance have remained fairly stable over the past decade. o While intolerance for sexual differences reaches 94% in Uganda, Sierra Leone, and Niger, it is not universal across the continent: Fewer than one-third of respondents express intolerant attitudes toward people in same-sex relationships in Cabo Verde (18%), South Africa (23%), and Seychelles (30%). o Comparing regions, North Africa consistently ranks at or near the bottom in tolerance toward social differences, while Central and West Africa rank at the top.
- Relatives are the only people whom a majority (58%) of Africans say they trust "a lot." But majorities say they at least "somewhat" trust neighbours, other citizens, people from different religious or ethnic backgrounds, and "other people you know."
- Interpersonal trust is higher among rural residents, less educated people, Muslims, and West and Central Africans than among their respective counterparts.
- A majority (57%) say they trust their fellow citizens "somewhat" or "a lot," ranging from just 26% in São Tomé and Príncipe to 86% in Mali.
- Six in 10 Africans (61%) say people are "often" or "always" treated unequally under the law.
- Almost half (47%) say their government "often" or "always" treats people unfairly based on how rich or poor they are - about three times as many as perceive widespread discrimination based on ethnicity (17%).
- Perceptions of frequent government discrimination based on people's economic status are most pervasive in Tunisia (72%), Nigeria (67%), Eswatini (66%), Cabo Verde (66%), and Mali (66%).
- Only 13% of Africans say they feel more attached to their ethnic identity than to their national identity. The largest share (45%) say they value both identities equally.
With more than 1,500 languages and dialects, Africa has experienced social cohesion - and its absence - as a complex interplay of unity and diversity shaped by colonial legacies, ethnic division, and political rhetoric. The Rwandan Genocide of 1994, South African apartheid, the mass expulsion of Nigerians from Ghana in 1969, and the retaliatory "Ghana must go" expulsion in 1983 stand as stark reminders of the devastating consequences of ethnic polarisation and failure to nurture a shared sense of identity and tolerance (Parker & Rathbone, 2007; Lawal, 2019).
Over the past 20 years, the continent has seen some indications of a growing acceptance of diversity. In East Africa, for example, the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (2016) cites Kenya's National Cohesion and Integration Commission, Uganda's Vision 2040, and Tanzania's Vision 2025 as examples of efforts to build more inclusive societies. Other authors emphasise the importance of building social cohesion by reducing social and economic inequality and ensuring that the basic needs of all people are met (Harsch, 2006; Saoudi & Louis-Sarbib, 2023).
Yet parts of the continent still grapple with xenophobic attacks and discrimination, economic disparities, political instability, corruption, the marginalisation of certain groups, and other threats to social cohesion (United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, 2016; Masiko Mpaka, 2023; Mabasa, 2023; Schwikowski, 2023). Ethnic nationalism, religious extremism, and growing scepticism toward public institutions exacerbate social tensions and undermine efforts to foster a sense of belonging and solidarity among diverse communities (Ould Mohamedou, 2016; Bikus, 2022; Wortmann-Kolundžija, 2023). The LGBTQ+ community in Africa faces some of the world's harshest and most discriminatory laws (Ferragamo & Robinson, 2023).
Are African countries doing enough to fight exclusion and marginalisation in a way that creates a sense of belonging, promotes trust and peace, and offers all people a fair opportunity of upward mobility? This paper explores social cohesion across four dimensions - tolerance, trust, discrimination, and identity - using recent Afrobarometer survey data.
Findings from 39 African countries surveyed between late 2021 and mid-2023 show that Africans express fairly high levels of tolerance for differences of ethnicity, religion, nationality, and political affiliation. The same is not true when it comes to sexual differences, although intolerance is not universal across the continent.
Sign up for free AllAfrica Newsletters
Get the latest in African news delivered straight to your inbox
Africans are cautiously trusting: While majorities say they trust other groups of people at least "somewhat," only relatives enjoy "a lot" of trust from a majority of respondents, and nearly half of respondents express little or no trust in people from other ethnic and religious backgrounds.
Survey responses also reflect widespread perceptions of unfair treatment by governments, especially on the basis of people's economic status.
Overall, Africans express a strong attachment to their national identities, but a majority consider their ethnic identities at least equally important.
Francisca Sarpong Owusu Francisca Sarpong Owusu is an assistant research analyst at the Ghana Center for Democratic Development.
Libuseng Malephane Libuseng Malephane is the national investigator for Lesotho.
