War takes a toll on soldiers' bodies and minds. To prepare for battle, soldiers are taken through various forms of training. Part of this training aims to strip candidates of their civilian values and inculcate military culture.
While armies have access to an array of contemporary strategies and weaponry during training, one element isn't often discussed: the rituals incorporated in training and those performed before engaging in warfare.
Rituals include the magico-religious practices performed for various purposes, such as seeking blessing, power, or protection or even imbibing military customs. Rituals or ceremonies are believed to bestow specific abilities upon individuals and shape their behaviours.
War rituals aren't exclusive to Africa. Many armed forces all over the world perform them. A study of rituals in the American military, for instance, found that these ceremonies help soldiers cope with trauma, loss and moral challenges during conflict.
As a scholar focused on the memories of war and violence experienced by former soldiers, I set out to study the role rituals play in shaping soldiers' identities, preparation for war and coping with war's realities in battle and after.
My findings suggest that rituals can function as a source of strength for soldiers. They instil a sense of confidence and security, as initiates feel encompassed by supernatural power. Additionally, these rituals enhance team unity, and reinforce discipline and loyalty to commanding officers.
My study highlights the integration of rituals into military tactics, and their influence on soldiers' lives amid stress and uncertainty on the battlefield. I argue that while the effectiveness of an army relies on the quality of its training and equipment, rituals can significantly influence the mindset of combatants.
The study
I interviewed 21 former Congolese soldiers from the Zairean Armed Forces (now known as the Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of Congo, following the country's renaming in May 1997) to gather data on their military experiences. These respondents served as the primary sources of information regarding the use of rituals.
A retrospective study like this raises concerns about potential memory lapses. Former soldiers reflecting on their army experiences may struggle to recall certain aspects due to the passage of time. However, research suggests that significant events are remembered more persistently, implying that military rituals can be recalled accurately.
I chose soldiers from the Zairean Armed Forces for two reasons. First, many soldiers left the national army and fled the country to South Africa after Laurent-Desiré Kabila overthrew Mobutu Sese Seko in 1997. Secondly, despite being plagued by corruption and mismanagement, Mobutu's army was widely regarded as disciplined and powerful.
Consequently, participants were more willing to discuss their military experiences as former members of the national defence forces. The respondents are now living in various Johannesburg suburbs.
The findings
I analysed the data I collected to identify patterns and extract common themes. I found that rituals involved the perceived creation of material shields or the acquisition of supernatural powers. They were aimed at offering a sense of protection of the body. Rituals also provided a mystical dimension, notably through the ceremonial treatment of uniforms.
The overarching aim of rituals was to disconnect soldiers from civilian life and cultivate a specific form of masculinity aligned with military objectives. This helped foster camaraderie, establish strong connections among troops and contributed to the maintenance of discipline.
Respondents in my study said initiation rituals focused on training and indoctrination to build a military identity centred on sacrifice and endurance for the nation. Before recruits donned military uniforms, for instance, they underwent rituals to consecrate their bodies to the army. One respondent, Makemba, explained:
A soldier is not afraid of death; a true soldier can't be afraid of death, I tell you. Because you live with death, you eat with death, and you clothe death ... military uniforms are taken to cemetery where they spend two or three days before you wear them to tell you that you are death's friend; you are brother of those who are dead, and you and those who are dead are the same.
This graveyard ritual symbolised the soldiers' connection with the deceased and transformed their individual identities into a collective body.
To reinforce discipline, respondents said, they were required to utter specific words before entering someone's field as a form of confession and permission. This, they said, would shield soldiers from negative impulses, such as using belongings without consent. The DRC army has a notorious reputation for exploiting civilians to supplement meagre salaries. Observing discipline was, therefore, considered essential for personal protection and the success of military operations.
Additionally, before being deployed for war, respondents said soldiers participated in various religious practices, and received blessings along with religious items. These magico-religious rituals served to provide a sense of protection from enemy attacks. These religious ceremonies, respondents said, provided a measure of solace and self-confidence before combat. As Lokole explained it:
You know, before joining the army I was an athlete and already knew something about power and protection because I had to protect myself against my opponents. But I joined the army, I was given leopard's bones and water in which the bones were kept. When I had to go to the battlefield, I washed my face, hands, and feet with that sacred water. The bones were strung together on a thread, which I was instructed to fasten around my waist. This was the source of power and protection for me, and I can tell you, I survived many deadly dangers because I had these powers.
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Respondents believed that these rituals proved effective while on the frontlines. In his account, Amani said:
Many of our colleagues found themselves face to face with the enemy who fired them at point-blank range but the bullets only passed through the clothes they were wearing without touching them. They returned with military uniform pierced by bullets, but they themselves were unharmed. Rituals were very protective. We witnessed many cases like this.
The effectiveness of these rituals, respondents believed, was contingent on strict adherence to them. Failure to do so, they said, could lead to fatalities. Soldiers also combined traditional beliefs with Christian faith to cope with battlefield challenges despite debates over the compatibility of these belief systems.
Why it matters
The data collected from former Congolese soldiers indicates that they believed their protection in battle was dependent on the quality of the weapons, as well as magico-religious resources. This indicates that rituals can play a key psychological role in preparing soldiers for war, fostering strength, cohesion and discipline. Their importance in the armed forces shouldn't be underestimated.
Dostin Lakika, Research Associate, University of the Witwatersrand
