Ongoing protests in Mozambique have highlighted deep-rooted political discontent following October's controversial elections and a long history of grievances since the country gained independence in 1975.
Mozambique is currently embroiled in a wave of violence that has resulted in upto 90 deaths and thousands more injured during protests that have sewpt across the nation.
The riots erupted in major cities - such as Maputo, Nampula, and Zambezia - amid allegations of electoral fraud after the 9 October presidential election, in which the ruling Frelimo party's candidate, Daniel Chapo, was declared the winner.
Frustration boiled over into street violence, reportedly incited by opposition Renamo leader Venancio Mondlane, who was defeated in the elections and is now calling for the continued mobilisation of national protests until at least Wednesday 11 December.
In the Matola suburb of the capital Maputo, protests intensified after a 13-year-old boy was shot dead by a plainclothes police officer, further escalating the violence.
According to police spokesperson Orlando Mudumane, the unrest reached new heights when demonstrators - armed with stones, knives, and machetes - clashed violently with law enforcement officers.
"The violent and tumultuous demonstrations have contributed to the vandalising of 22 secondary schools, arson at five police stations ... Unfortunately, five people died and three were seriously injured," Mudumane explained in a report from RFI's Portuguese language service.
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The latest incidents of violence mark some of the most severe demonstrations since Mozambique adopted multiparty democracy in 1990.
The protests are rooted in deep-seated political discontent within the country.
The October elections, which saw the Frelimo party - who have been in government since independence from Portugal in 1975 - claim a sweeping victory with 70 percent of the vote, have been widely criticised.
A recent report from the minority opposition Optimistic Party for the Development of Mozambique, maintains that the recent electoral process was rife with irregularities.
Civil society groups reported significant instances of voter intimidation, ballot-box stuffing and fraudulent vote counts, which sparked outrage and led to widespread protests demanding accountability from the government.
History of civil conflict
The current crisis in Mozambique did not occur in a vacuum but is intertwined with historical grievances stemming from the country's violent past.
Since gaining independence following a decade-long revolutionary war, Mozambique has struggled with instability.
Initially, it became a one-party Marxist-Leninist state under the Frelimo government, which then faced an insurgent civil war from the Renamo party beginning in 1977.
The brutal conflict lasted 15 years, resulting in the deaths of hundreds of thousands of people and extensive destruction until a peace accord was reached in 1992, leading to the country's first multiparty elections in 1994.
Despite an apparent transition towards democracy, the political landscape in Mozambique has remained fraught with tension and oppression.
Frelimo - while publicly adopting democratic ideals - has maintained tight control over state institutions.
The party diverged from its Marxist roots in 1989 but continued operating within a "hybrid governance model" that has seen regular elections often marred by accusations of fraud and corruption.
Power and corruption
Over the years, Frelimo's grip on power, coupled with rampant corruption -most notably illustrated by the 2016 "tuna bond scandal" - has deepened public dissatisfaction with the government.
Despite the country's mineral wealth and natural resources, significant portions of the population live in poverty, and infrastructure remains drastically underdeveloped.
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This, in turn, has exacerbated frustration among many Mozambicans, particularly the youth who have increasingly sought to bring about change by mobilising though social media.
Amid the rising violence, Mozambique also faces significant challenges, including an ongoing insurgency in the northern province of Cabo Delgado linked to the Islamic State.
The government's inability to effectively confront the islamists has led to further public discontent and underscores a demand for political accountability.
As the Mozambican government's approach to curtailing unrest and addressing public grievances comes under the spotlight, protests are expected to continue, driven by calls for reform from Mondlane and other opposition leaders.
The recent, deadly protests are not merely a response to electoral irregularities in October but a culmination of historical grievances and systemic issues that have persisted for almost 50 years.
