Digital platforms are not passive hosts of content. They have become creator economies in which attention is systematically converted into income, and content that provokes outrage, fear or anger often proves to be among the most lucrative.

South Africa is hurtling towards a dread-inducing date for many: 30 June. Set by March and March, a self-described "citizen-led movement", the deadline calls for all "illegal" foreign nationals to leave the country. While the leaders of this movement have been careful not to be seen to explicitly endorse any violence or unrest in furtherance of their call, social media accounts supportive of the deadline have shown no such hesitation. Social media feeds are saturated with videos naming alleged "illegal foreigners", circulating unverifiable lists, spreading rumours and false information, and urging communities to take action.

The line between rhetoric and real-world harm is thinning by the day.

Accounts on X like that of @LeratoPillayZA, a key influencer in the South African anti-foreigner digital ecosystem with more than 65,000 followers on X, advertises in its profile bio: "DM [direct message] for Promos." What this means is that the account is offering audiences to pay for or arrange promotional posts of various kinds, effectively offering its reach and influence as a commercial service, regardless of the specific topic or viewpoint being promoted.

A recent post pairs the 30 June deadline with an image of a man's face marked by the imprint...