Kenya: Most Kenyans Embrace Diversity, but Many Perceive Ethnicity-Based Discrimination

28 July 2026
Afrobarometer (Accra)
By Eunice Karimi and Erick Murithi

More than eight in 10 citizens value their national identity at least as highly as their ethnicity.

Key findings

  • Most Kenyans (85%) value their national identity at least as highly as their ethnic identity. A majority (53%) value the two equally, and only 13% say their ethnicity is more important than their identity as Kenyans.
  • Almost one in four Kenyans (23%) say their ethnic group is "often" or "always" treated unfairly by the government, while another one in three (33%) say this happens "sometimes."
  • Most citizens express tolerance toward other ethnicities: 89% say they "would not care," would "somewhat like," or would "strongly like" living next door to someone of a different ethnic group.
  • Majorities also indicate tolerance for people from different religious backgrounds (89%), supporters of different political parties (84%), immigrants or foreign workers (71%), and refugees (62%).
  • But only one in 10 (9%) express tolerance toward people in same-sex relationships.
  • While three-fourths (74%) of Kenyans say they trust their relatives "somewhat" or "a lot," only half say the same thing about other ethnic groups (51%), people of different religious background (50%), and "other citizens" (50%).
  • Both Christians (90%) and Muslims (85%) express high levels of tolerance for people from different religious backgrounds.
  • And party affiliation doesn't appear to promote political intolerance: Citizens who "feel close to" a political party are slightly more likely than nonpartisans to express tolerance for adherents of a different party (87% vs. 82%).

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When asked "Who are you?", one can answer in terms of self-perception, either as an individual or as part of a social group (Vignoles, 2017). People draw on different identities depending on the circumstances: ethnic, national, religious, sexual, linguistic, and political, among others. Identifying with a particular group may be a positive part of life, but it can also be used to alienate or deny rights to other individuals and groups (Mitullah, 2021; Mbori, 2021).

Kenya is home to at least 42 ethnic groups, and as in other African countries, ethnic or regional identity has sometimes been used to determine access to resources (Cumanzala & Logan, 2025; Kanyinga, 2016; Nyaura, 2018). When the political class uses ethnic cleavages for electoral and power gains, ethnic politics become institutionalised and can undermine democracy and trust in institutions, deepen inequalities, and even lead to deadly conflicts (Biegon, Kivuva, Asingo, & Wahiu, 2018).

The identity discourse in Kenya is rooted in the colonial era, when race was a major determinant of status and loyalty was rewarded with opportunities in education, public service, and government jobs. Post-independence, Kenya's elites maintained a loyalty reward system based on ethnic and regional identities, thereby perpetuating socio economic inequalities (Republic of Kenya, 2023; Nyamweno & Chepchieng, 2023). This competition over resources and an acute sense of scarcity by some groups have been identified as being at the heart of the 2007/2008 post-election violence in Kenya, in which more than 1,000 people lost their lives and about 300,000 people were displaced (Leibold, 2015; Nyaura, 2018).

The Constitution of Kenya devolves power and resources to the 47 county governments, with the primary goal of fostering national unity by recognising diversity. Further, Article 27 of the Constitution protects all Kenyans from discrimination on any grounds, including ethnic or social origin and religion. Other instruments aimed at fostering national identity and cohesion among Kenya's different groups include the National Cohesion and Integration Commission (NCIC), which was operationalised in 2009 and is mandated to promote national identity and values and to mitigate ethno-political competition and ethnically motivated violence; the Employment Act of 2007, which emphasises non-discrimination; and the Diversity Policy for the Public Service (Ng'eno, 2023; Republic of Kenya, 2010, 2023).

While multiple and competing identities are often mobilised by Kenya's elite for political gain, diverse identities can also be leveraged to learn about different cultures and nurture communities with a shared sense of purpose, including poverty reduction (United Nations, 2025).

Afrobarometer Round 10 findings show that Kenyans value both their national and ethnic identities. Many citizens say the government treats their ethnic group unfairly, at least "sometimes." Most express tolerant attitudes toward other ethnicities, religions, political views, and nationalities - though not toward different sexual identities. While a large majority say they trust their relatives, only half express trust in people from different ethnic or religious backgrounds.

Eunice Karimi Eunice Karimi is a research assistant at the Institute for Development Studies.

Erick Murithi Erick Murithi is Afrobarometer's data quality officer for East Africa

Read the original article on Afrobarometer.

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