Two recent disasters in Morocco and Libya highlight the deadly consequences of outdated infrastructure in the face of natural hazards.
Extreme weather events such as floods, droughts, and heatwaves are becoming more frequent and intense. These events are displacing millions of people and causing significant damage to roads, power grids, and other vital infrastructure, disrupting essential services, and costing economies billions of dollars. This is particularly concerning for Africa, already one of the most vulnerable continents to the climate crisis.
African cities are facing an infrastructure deficit that is threatening their ability to provide essential services such as power and transportation, according to Hastings Chikoko, Regional Director for Africa at C40 Cities. C40 Cities is a global network of nearly 100 mayors of the world's leading cities that are united in action to confront the climate crisis. The network was created and is led by cities, and is focused on fighting the climate crisis and driving urban action that reduces greenhouse gas emissions and climate risks while increasing the health, well-being, and economic opportunities of urban residents.
"At the C40 level, we are witnessing how extreme weather events are heavily impacting cities' infrastructure and their capacity to adapt to climate change," Chikoko said. "Unfortunately, land is a challenge in African cities, with many houses and infrastructure built in known or unknown vulnerability areas, such as floodplains or mountain slopes prone to landslides."
Africa facing more disasters
Africa has experienced a number of devastating natural disasters. Floods swept across Nigeria, South Africa, Benin, Madagascar, and the Central African Republic in 2022. These disasters caused widespread death, disease, displacement, and hunger. In 2023, Tropical Storm Freddy ripped through Mozambique, Malawi, and Zimbabwe, killing over 1,434 people and displacing over 2 million. Freddy was the deadliest tropical cyclone to ever hit Africa, killing more people than Cyclone Idai in 2019. In 2020, East Africa experienced its worst locust outbreak in decades, which destroyed crops and food supplies, leading to widespread hunger. And in 2022, the Horn of Africa experienced its worst drought in 40 years, which displaced over 20 million people.
Between 1990 and 2019, the continent experienced 1,107 flood and drought events, resulting in 43,625 deaths and at least $14 billion in damages to crops, livestock, and property. This devastation is even more unjust because Africa is the least responsible for the climate crisis, contributing only 3.8% of global historic greenhouse gas emissions.
In Morocco, a magnitude 6.8 earthquake struck the Atlas Mountains, near the historic city of Marrakech on September 8, 2023. The quake, the largest to hit the country in over a century, killed nearly 3,000 people and destroyed hundreds of buildings.
Shortly after the earthquake on 10 September, Libya experienced intense flooding in the city of Derna which led to what some described as a climate and infrastructure catastrophe. The floods in Derna show how the impact of the climate crisis can exacerbate infrastructure challenges. It was caused by a combination of factors including heavy rainfall, and poorly maintained dams. Other critical infrastructure, especially water and sanitation systems, were destroyed or badly damaged thus increasing the risk of disease.
Libya's damaged infrastructure and history of conflict also contributed to the severity of the floods.
The two dams in the Derna system were built in the 1970s. According to experts, the dams lacked proper maintenance, despite repeated warnings. As a result, they were unable to withstand the heavy rainfall caused by Storm Daniel, causing a torrent to rush through the city of Derna, killing at least 5,300 people and destroying homes and businesses. A significant number of people are still missing or presumed dead.
The escalating climate crisis has forced many individuals to flee their homes and seek refuge in neighboring countries, becoming what are colloquially known as "climate refugees," as reported by Al-Jazeera.
The Institute for Security Studies (ISS) warns that the Derna flood will likely exacerbate the displacement of refugees and migrants to neighboring countries, stoking tensions and straining already fragile relations. This disaster underscores the urgent need to deepen our understanding of the intricate connections between the climate crisis, development, and security. The International Organization for Migration estimates that the Derna floods displaced 30,000 people. This situation is further complicated by the fact that the region is already a major migration hub due to its proximity to Europe. Prior to the floods, Libya hosted over 705,000 refugees and migrants from more than 44 nationalities, according to Michela Pugliese, a migration and asylum researcher at Euro-Med Human Rights Monitor.
Morocco's earthquake and Libya's floods are a stark reminder that the climate crisis is increasing the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events. These disasters caused significant loss of life and damage to infrastructure in both countries, highlighting the need for constant, transnational monitoring and cooperation to address these challenges.
Africa's infrastructure investments are at risk from the climate crisis, and leaders must urgently implement measures to make them more resilient, according to South Africa's Forestry, Fisheries, and Environment Minister, Barbara Creecy. The minister spoke at the inaugural Africa Climate Summit held in Nairobi, Kenya in September. She warned that if the impacts of the climate crisis are not taken into account now, the current and next generation of infrastructure in Africa could be locked into designs that are inadequate for the future and costly or impossible to modify later. She called for planning new infrastructure for climate resilience and adapting existing infrastructure to reduce risks, saying that there is a high probability that the climate crisis offsets or reduces the economic and developmental benefits of these investments.
Need for Early Warning Systems
World Meteorological Organization Secretary-General Petteri Taalas said that the tragedy in Libya highlights the devastating and cascading consequences of extreme weather on fragile states and emphasised the need for multi-hazard early warning systems that include all levels of government and society. Libya's National Meteorological Center issued early warnings for the extreme weather event, which saw unprecedented rainfall levels (414.1 mm in 24 hours at one station), causing flash floods. However, the warnings do not address the risk posed by aging dams.
Chikoko added that not all African cities fully understand the risks and vulnerabilities in areas prone to extreme weather events, and few have disaster risk reduction plans in place to deal with disasters effectively. "Cities are doing their best, but they are always reactive and not proactive," Chikoko said. "We need to support cities to develop early warning systems and integrate climate change into their capital investment planning for infrastructure-related projects."
Wealthy countries use expensive and complex weather monitoring systems that rely on advanced radar and modeling technology to track rainfall and flooding, these factors put them out of reach for many low-income countries.
This disparity is a matter of life and death.
According to researchers at the University of Cambridge, it is essential to invest in hydromet systems in order to help vulnerable populations mitigate and adapt to weather-related hazards. Hydromet systems are networks of instruments and stations that measure and monitor hydrological and meteorological data, such as rainfall, temperature, and wind speed. This data is used to generate forecasts and warnings about weather-related hazards, such as floods, droughts, and storms.
Africa has the least developed weather, climate, and hydrology observation network in the world, with only one-eighth of the required density and less than 300 weather stations that meet the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) observation standards. This lack of infrastructure hampers the ability to monitor and forecast weather events and changes in water levels, leaving African populations even more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Over half of the radar stations in Africa cannot provide accurate enough data to predict weather patterns for the next few days or hours, reports the WMO.
Africa's Infrastructure at Risk from Climate Change
The climate crisis poses a serious threat to transport infrastructure, which is already vulnerable in Africa due to years of neglect and underinvestment, according to The Conversation Africa.
Rising temperatures, increased precipitation, and more frequent extreme weather events are already causing widespread damage. Damaged infrastructure can disrupt economic activity, make it difficult to transport goods and people, and reduce access to essential services such as water, electricity, and healthcare. This has an impact on wellbeing and livelihoods.
African leaders are well aware that poor infrastructure is holding back their countries' progress - and the lives of their people, and they are taking steps to address the problem. According to the Ibrahim 2022 Governance Report, all 54 African governments committed to improving infrastructure, believing that it will boost their economies. Some experts believe that Africa is on the cusp of a 20 to 30-year infrastructure development boom. The Ibrahim Index found that infrastructure is the only area of governance where all 54 African countries made progress. However, while some infrastructure areas improved, transport networks have not since 2012, with the exception of rail. In fact, most countries have seen a decrease in the size of road networks and the prevalence of paved roads per capita. Shipping and postal facilities also deteriorated.
The African Union (AU) reported that flooding can devastate infrastructure, food security, communication, and the economy of affected regions. The AU added that trade is essential for food security, and transport infrastructure is essential for trade. In many African countries, food insecurity is worsened by a lack of transport infrastructure that can withstand climate change. As climate impacts make it more likely that critical trade routes will be disrupted, food insecurity is expected to worsen.
Meanwhile, many African nations are grappling with multiple challenges, including high inflation, political instability, debt burdens, an ongoing food crisis, natural disasters, and mitigating the risks of climate change.
Nevertheless, there are a number of steps that can be taken to make infrastructure more resilient to climate change. Some of these include investing in resilient infrastructure, planning for the climate crisis, increasing maintenance and rehabilitation, building quality climate-resilient infrastructure, and systemic transformation. Investment plans for infrastructure should account for the potential impacts, which may significantly affect hydropower availability, demand for irrigation and energy, and many other factors relevant to these investments' success. By implementing these measures, African countries can make infrastructure more resilient, which will be critical for their economic and social development.
Ghana is typical of other African countries that are increasingly affected by the impacts of climate change, including more volatile rainfall patterns and heat waves. Ghana's policymakers recognized the threat of the climate crisis, and several large-scale adaptation initiatives are underway, such as investing in drainage systems, expanding access to energy-efficient building materials, and paving alleyways in informal settlements, according to Brookings.
Cities Can Play a Role in Building Resilient Housing
As extreme weather events become more frequent and devastating, we have to rethink the way we build.
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"C40 is actively supporting African cities in their efforts to address the challenges of climate change," said Chikoko. "In our 13 African cities, we have supported the development of Climate Risk and Vulnerability Assessments (CCRVAs) and Climate Action Plans (CAPs), which list targets to achieve resilience through evidence-based science."
"We are also going beyond technical support to provide financial assistance and expertise. For example, we recently established the CFO Network to support senior financial officers in African cities in understanding climate change more effectively and embedding it into capital investment plans," he added. "The C40 Cities Finance Facility's project aims to support cities in unlocking finance for critical climate-resilient infrastructure projects."
As Africa urbanizes, cities are becoming increasingly vulnerable to climate-related hazards. Cities can pave the way for sustainable and resilient housing solutions by implementing innovative urban planning and housing policies. Initiatives such as promoting eco-friendly building materials, investing in infrastructure to withstand natural disasters, and providing access to affordable housing options can contribute significantly to resilience.
This can have quite an impact as cities generate 70% of greenhouse gases, according to a World Bank report.
Climate change cannot be solved without tackling building emissions and providing climate-resilient housing, as buildings account for 19% of global greenhouse gas emissions. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has stated that all new buildings must be zero net carbon by 2030, and existing buildings must be zero net carbon by 2050. Africa's population is projected to double to 2.5 billion by 2050, putting unprecedented strain on the continent's infrastructure. To accommodate this rapid growth, Africa needs to invest heavily in new roads, bridges, power plants, and other essential infrastructure projects.
In South Africa, the City of Cape Town is working with the C40 Cities Finance Facility to develop a city-wide flood resilience and river management project. This project focuses on three sub-catchments of the Diep Southern River, the Big and Little Lotus Rivers, and the Elsieskraal River, which flow through a variety of areas including informal settlements, industrial zones, and horticultural areas. By rehabilitating waterways, wetlands, and floodplains, the project will improve the conditions of public open spaces and river corridors, transforming these areas into vibrant and resilient ecosystems.
Chikoko added that cities are still focusing on grey infrastructure projects, while they should recognize that their natural assets, such as rivers, wetlands, and forests, can help to cope with extreme weather events and protect communities and infrastructure.
"We need to be more effective in deploying nature-based solutions," he said.
Edited by Melissa Britz
