The recent spate of violence in Nigeria's Plateau state which resulted in over 160 deaths has raised questions whether present and past Nigerian administrations are doing enough to resolve the conflict.
The latest attack in the Plateau State reads like a nightmare: 17 communities were targeted, numerous houses burned down, scores of people killed.
"In Mangu local governorate alone, we buried 15 people ... in Bokkos, we are counting not less than 100 corpses," said Plateau Governor Caleb Mutfwang.
But this is only the latest of many cases of such mass killings in Nigeria's Plateau State this year, which have widely been attributed to the persisting farmer-herder crisis in the West African nation.
While authorities are yet to establish the exact number of casualties from the Christmas attack, Amnesty International has confirmed at least 140 deaths in the Bokkos and Barkin-Ladi areas alone.
The rights organization also cited a slow response by security agencies -- a concern also raised by an anonymous victim in Bokkos, who spoke to DW.
"We thought the government would bring in back-up, but unfortunately, that is yet to come," the source said despondently
Victims in despair
Visiting Bokkos on Wednesday, Nigeria's vice president, Kashim Shettima, tried to reassure locals that they were not being left alone.
"While it may seem that we have failed you in your time of dire need, while it may seem that you are all alone, I assure you that this government, and most particularly (President) Bola Ahmed Tinubu is here to protect you," Shettima said, promising to "deliver justice."
But the situation appears to have moved on from a quest for justice to an all-out humanitarian crisis.
Solomon Lukas, another Bokkos resident, told DW that in the absence of government support, most of the vulnerable population had escaped to safety in recent days, while he and other men were staying behind to protect what was left of their community.
"There is serious tension on the ground. We have not slept since Sunday. Our eyes are 24 hours open. People are tired, and the security says they don't have manpower," Lukas said.
While Governor Mutfwang described the spate of attacks as "senseless and unprovoked," the head of the Bokkos farmers' community, Edward Dikos called the rate of destruction in Plateau State "simply unbearable."
"The Fulani came and for no just reason, they began to kill our people, burn our houses, destroy properties, animals and everything. We don't have food to eat or water to drink," noted Dikos.
A complex conflict
But meanwhile, the Fulani community is also counting its losses: "They came and started burning Fulani houses, and all their belongings and they had to run for their lives," Garba Abdullahi Muhammad, the State Chairman of the Gan Allah Fulani Development Association of Nigeria, told DW. "Over one hundred houses have been destroyed, many dead, and several others are missing"
With victim numbers amassing and violence persisting on both sides of the conflict, a resolution of the situation appears elusive, especially in the absence of government-led solutions.
Security analyst Kabiru Adamu, a Principal Partner at Beacon Consult, a Security Research Outfit in Nigeria, told DW that ethnic divisions between the two groups are being exacerbated, as competition for land resources, political manipulation, and the spread of misinformation on social media weigh in on the conflict.
"There are essentially two communities that are divided along several lines. So, the farming communities see themselves as indigenouss and of different tribes. And then you have the other group, which is essentially nomadic," he told DW.
Adamu adds that the situation is further being complicated by the religious divides between the two communities.
"The Fulani are mainly Muslims, unlike the first group, who are Christians," he said, blaming shortcomings in both the traditional religious justice systems and the inadequate response of government security forces on the escalation.
Quest for dialogue
Both Fulanis and farmers are calling for sustainable solutions and looking for a sense of peaceful coexistence. Dikos has pleaded for dialogue and understanding, emphasizing the need to bridge the divide between farmers and herders.
"They are into grazing and farming just like us. They have the same opportunities and positions as our people. We are not troublemakers; we are peace-loving people," he elaborated.
Muhammad meanwhile highlights the role of cattle rustling as a trigger, calling for a thorough investigation with lasting solutions:
"We the Fulani people are not happy with what is happening, and we are calling on relevant authorities to do what is needed and not take sides. A very strong investigation should be put in place, and a lasting solution should be sought," he stressed.
Both community leaders agreed that violence was not the solution, but Muhammed added that while "violence is unnecessary and uncalled for, if there is injustice, that may trigger violence."
To prevent further bloodshed, Dikos and Muhammad agree that sitting together to understand why things escalated is the only way forward.
Calls for collective action
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Nigerian President Bola Tinubu's directive to apprehend the perpetrators of the violence and provide aid to survivors offers a glimmer of hope, as locals continue to blame the government.
"We came to power, promising to uphold the sanctity of every citizen's life, and now is the time to assure you that this inter-community violence which has hijacked the humanities and serenities of this beautiful state, will never persist under our watch," Shettima said during his visit.
However, the lack of coordination between State and Federal security structuresand a failure to cooperate with local forces might mean that there will be little in the way of change, says security analyst Adamu:
"The state government's efforts, no matter how well-intentioned, need to be integrated into the Federal Security structure to achieve the objectives of peace and stability in the region," he told DW, adding the criminal justice system also needs to be bolstered to prevent future bloodshed:
"Strengthen the criminal justice system so that offenders of both sides, irrespective of identity, political affiliation or whatever are arrested and then they are prosecuted."
Abdullahi Maidawa contributed to the article
Edited by: Sertan Sanderson
